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| ===== Integer type ===== | ===== Integer type ===== | ||
| - | The **integer** type represents a number without decimals, as opposed to the [[float]] type which can have decimals. | + | The $ty[integer] type represents a number without decimals, as opposed to the $ty[float] type which can have decimals. |
| - | Formally, the integer type is a 32-bit signed integer, which means that its range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647. Integer constants are specified just by entering the digits. They can optionally be preceded with a minus sign for negative numbers, but rigorously speaking, the sign is not part of the number, but an operator, and thus it takes code space. There are two exceptions: if the number is immediately after a type cast prefix, or if it is in the globals initialization, the sign will be part of the number and not take code space. | + | Formally, the $ty[integer] type is a 32-bit signed integer, which means that its range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647. Integer literals are specified just by entering the digits. They can optionally be preceded with a minus sign for negative numbers, but rigorously speaking, the sign is not part of the number, but an operator, and thus it takes code space. There are two exceptions: if the number is immediately after a type cast prefix, or if it is in the globals initialization, the sign will be part of the number and not take code space. |
| - | If an integer constant is out of the range of a 32-bit unsigned integer, the result will automatically be -1; otherwise, the result will be the value taken as a signed 32-bit integer. For example: | + | If an integer literal is out of the range of a 32-bit unsigned integer, the result will automatically be -1; otherwise, the result will be the value taken as a signed 32-bit integer. For example: |
| <code lsl2> | <code lsl2> | ||
| integer j = 12345678901234567890; | integer j = 12345678901234567890; | ||
| Line 16: | Line 16: | ||
| will set j to -2. | will set j to -2. | ||
| - | Another way to specify an integer constant is in hexadecimal (also called base 16 or radix 16). The digits for hexadecimal are the normal digits from 0 to 9 plus the letters from A to F (case doesn't matter), making a total of 16 digits available (A is ten, B is eleven, and so on until F which is fifteen). In LSL, an hexadecimal number is entered by prefixing it with a zero and an ex; for example, 0x12abcd34 is an integer expressed in hexadecimal, equivalent to the decimal number 313249076. Since case doesn't matter, 0X12AbCd34 is the same number. | + | Another way to specify an integer literal is in hexadecimal (also called base 16 or radix 16). The digits for hexadecimal are the normal digits from 0 to 9 plus the letters from A to F (case doesn't matter), making a total of 16 digits available (A is ten, B is eleven, and so on until F which is fifteen). In LSL, an hexadecimal number is entered by prefixing it with a zero and an ex; for example, ''0x12abcd34'' is an integer expressed in hexadecimal, equivalent to the decimal number 313249076. Since case doesn't matter, ''0X12AbCd34'' is the same number. |
| - | Unlike other languages which inspired the syntax of LSL, LSL does not support octal (base 8) constants. | + | Unlike other languages which inspired the syntax of LSL, LSL does not support octal (base 8) literals. |
| === Type casting an integer to/from other types === | === Type casting an integer to/from other types === | ||
| - | When a float is converted to an integer, the value is rounded towards zero, i.e. truncating the decimals. For example, ''(integer)-3.7'' results in the integer -3, and ''(integer)3.7'' results in the integer 3. If the float is too big to fit in an integer, the result is -2147483648. For example, ''(integer)1e30'' gives the integer -2147483648. Note that that's different from the result of specifying a too big integer constant, which is -1. | + | When a $ty[float] is converted to an $ty[integer], the value is rounded towards zero, i.e. truncating the decimals. For example, ''(integer)-3.7'' results in the integer -3, and ''(integer)3.7'' results in the integer 3. If the $ty[float] is too big to fit in an $ty[integer], the result is -2147483648. For example, ''(integer)1e30'' gives the integer -2147483648. Note that that's different from the result of specifying a too big $ty[integer] literal, which is -1. |
| - | For other rounding methods, see [[functions/llFloor]] (round a float down towards negative infinity), [[functions/llCeil]] (round up towards positive infinity), and [[functions/llRound]] (round to closest integer). | + | For other rounding methods, see $lfn[llFloor] (round a float down towards negative infinity), $lfn[llCeil] (round up towards positive infinity), and $lfn[llRound] (round to closest integer). |
| - | Conversion of an integer to [[types/string]] results in the integer being converted to its decimal expression. For example, (string)-12345 results in the string "-12345", and (string)0x12ABCD34 results in the string "313249076". | + | Conversion of an $ty[integer] to $lty[string] results in the integer being converted to its decimal expression. For example, ''(string)-12345'' results in the string "-12345", and ''(string)0x12ABCD34'' results in the string "313249076". |
| - | Conversion of a string to an integer follows some special rules. | + | Conversion of a $ty[string] to an $ty[integer] follows some special rules. |
| * If the string starts with "0x" or "0X", the integer will be taken as hexadecimal, but not if it starts with "-0x" or "-0X". | * If the string starts with "0x" or "0X", the integer will be taken as hexadecimal, but not if it starts with "-0x" or "-0X". | ||
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| * If the decimal number is too big to fit an integer, the result will be -1. | * If the decimal number is too big to fit an integer, the result will be -1. | ||
| - | Type cast of an integer to/from vector, rotation, or key is not supported. Type cast of a list to integer is not supported either. Type cast of an integer to [[types/list]] results in a list containing that integer as the only element, just as when any other type is converted to list. | + | Type cast of an $ty[integer] to/from $lty[vector], $lty[rotation], or $lty[key] is not supported. Type cast of a $lty[list] to $ty[integer] is not supported either. Type cast of an $ty[integer] to $ty[list] results in a list containing that integer as the only element, just as when any other type is converted to $ty[list]. |
| === Examples === | === Examples === | ||
| - | == Examples of integer constants == | + | == Examples of integer literals == |
| - | * ''342'' is a constant representing the integer 342. | + | * ''342'' is a literal representing the integer 342. |
| - | * ''0x1'' is a constant representing the integer 1. | + | * ''0x1'' is a literal representing the integer 1. |
| - | * ''0XA'' is a constant representing the integer 10. | + | * ''0XA'' is a literal representing the integer 10. |
| - | * ''3.'' is not an integer constant; it is a [[types/float]] constant. | + | * ''3.'' is not an integer literal; it is a $lty[float] literal. |
| == Examples of type conversion between string and integer == | == Examples of type conversion between string and integer == | ||
| Line 66: | Line 66: | ||
| * ''(integer)"0x3"'' gives the integer 3. | * ''(integer)"0x3"'' gives the integer 3. | ||
| * ''(integer)"0x2astuff"'' gives the integer 42 (0x2A in hexadecimal). | * ''(integer)"0x2astuff"'' gives the integer 42 (0x2A in hexadecimal). | ||
| - | * ''(integer)"0xcafeteria"'' gives the integer 51966 (0xCAFE in hexadecimal). The //t// is not an hexadecimal digit, so the parsing finishes there. However, //c//, //a//, //f// and //e// are valid hexadecimal digits | + | * ''(integer)"0xcafeteria"'' gives the integer 51966 (0xCAFE in hexadecimal). //c//, //a//, //f// and //e// are valid hexadecimal digits, but //t// is not, so the parsing finishes there. |
| === Operations on integers === | === Operations on integers === | ||
| - | Integers can be added (**+**), subtracted (**-**), multiplied (**`***) and divided (**/**). When both sides of the operation are integers, the result is an integer too. Note that this is true in the case of division in particular, which means that the operation is "integer division", returning the quotient (thus rounding towards zero). For example, the result of ''7/2'' is the integer 3, because 7 divided by 2 gives a quotient of 3. When either side of the operation is a float and the other an integer, the integer will be converted to float if it is not so already; for example, ''3.0+2'' is equivalent to ''3.0+(float)2'' and results in the float ''5.0'', and ''7/(float)2'' or ''(float)7/2'' both result in the float ''3.5''. Note, however, that ''(float)(7/2)'' results in the float ''3.0'', because first ''7/2'' is performed, which results in ''3'', and then the conversion of ''3'' to float occurs. | + | Integers can be added ($op[+]), subtracted ($op[-]), multiplied ($op[`*]) and divided ($op[/]). When both sides of the operation are $ty[integer], the result is $ty[integer] too. Note that this is true in the case of division in particular, which means that the operation is //"integer division",// returning the quotient (thus rounding towards zero). For example, the result of ''7/2'' is the integer 3, because 7 divided by 2 gives a quotient of 3. When either side of the operation is a float and the other an integer, the integer will be converted to $ty[float] if it is not so already; for example, ''3.0+2'' is equivalent to ''3.0+(float)2'' and results in the float ''5.0'', and ''7/(float)2'' or ''(float)7/2'' both result in the float ''3.5''. Note, however, that ''(float)(7/2)'' results in the float ''3.0'', because first ''7/2'' is performed, which results in ''3'', and then the conversion of ''3'' to float occurs. |
| - | Another operation available for integers (but not for floats) is called //modulo,// which means the remainder of the division. The sign used for modulo is the percent sign **%**. For example, ''7%2'' returns ''1'' because the remainder of dividing 7 by 2 is 1; ''51%15'' returns ''6'' because when dividing 51 by 15, the remainder is 6. | + | Another operation available for integers (but not for floats) is called //modulo,// which means the remainder of the division. The symbol used for modulo is the percent sign $op[%]. For example, the result of ''7%2'' is 1 because the remainder of dividing 7 by 2 is 1; ''51%15'' gives 6 because when dividing 51 by 15, the remainder is 6. |
| - | Integers can be compared for equality (**==**), inequality (**!=**), less than (**<**), greater than (**>**), less or equal (**<=**) and greater or equal (**>=**). All of the comparison operators can be applied to two integers, resulting in either the integer [[constants/TRUE]] (1) or the integer [[constants/FALSE]] (0), depending on the result of the comparison. All of these operators can be also applied to [[float|floats]] too, but the result of the comparison is still an integer. Some can be applied to other types; see each type for specific details. | + | A minus sign can prefix any integer value, and the result is the value with the sign changed. Note that it's much preferable to write ''-var'' than ''var*-1'', as the former uses less code space and is faster. |
| - | Integers are also used as boolean values (values that express a truth value of either true or false, sometimes also called flags). See [[Boolean]] for details. There are two logical operations that operate on integers that are interpreted as boolean: the ''&&'' ("logical and") operator and the ''||'' ("logical or") operator. The //logical and// operator returns [[constants/TRUE]] when both elements evaluate to a truth value of true (which means they are distinct from 0), and to [[constants/FALSE]] otherwise. The //logical or// returns [[constants/FALSE]] when both elements are **FALSE**, and **TRUE** otherwise. Examples: | + | Integers can be compared for equality ($op[==]), inequality ($op[!=]), less than ($op[`<]), greater than ($op[>]), less or equal ($op[`<=]) and greater or equal ($op[>=]). All of the comparison operators can be applied to two integers, resulting in either the integer $lct[TRUE] (1) or the integer $lct[FALSE] (0), depending on the result of the comparison. All of these operators can also be applied to $ty[float] (if one of the arguments is an integer and the other is a float, the integer will be converted to $ty[float] before comparing), but the result of the comparison is still an integer, either 0 or 1. |
| + | |||
| + | == Logical and bitwise operators == | ||
| + | |||
| + | Integers are also used as boolean values (values that express a truth value of either //true// or //false,// sometimes also called flags). See $lty[Boolean] for details. There are three logical operations that operate on integers that are interpreted as boolean: the $op[&&] ("logical and") operator, the $op[`|`|] ("logical or") operator and the $op[!] ("logical not") operator. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The //logical and// operator returns $lct[TRUE] when both elements evaluate to a truth value of //true// (which means they are distinct from 0), and to $lct[FALSE] otherwise. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The //logical or// operator returns $ct[FALSE] when both elements are $ct[FALSE], and $ct[TRUE] otherwise. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The //logical not// operator is a prefix that applies to a single operand. It returns $ct[TRUE] if the operand is $ct[FALSE], and $ct[FALSE] otherwise. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Examples of the boolean operators: | ||
| <code lsl2> | <code lsl2> | ||
| Line 87: | Line 99: | ||
| llOwnerSay((string)(2 || 0)); // displays 1 | llOwnerSay((string)(2 || 0)); // displays 1 | ||
| llOwnerSay((string)(0 || 0)); // displays 0 | llOwnerSay((string)(0 || 0)); // displays 0 | ||
| + | llOwnerSay((string)(! 3)); // displays 0 | ||
| + | llOwnerSay((string)(! 0)); // displays 1 | ||
| </code> | </code> | ||
| Finally, there are a series of operators called the //bitwise operators.// The name comes from the fact that they apply to the base-2 (also called binary) representation of the number, in which each digit is also called a //bit.// | Finally, there are a series of operators called the //bitwise operators.// The name comes from the fact that they apply to the base-2 (also called binary) representation of the number, in which each digit is also called a //bit.// | ||
| - | The operators **&**, **|** and **^** stand for //bitwise AND, bitwise OR// and //bitwise XOR// respectively, and all perform their operation bit by bit of the corresponding numbers. For example, 5 in 32-bit binary is ''00000000000000000000000000000101'', and 3 is ''00000000000000000000000000000011''. Therefore, ''5&3'' equals ''1'', because: | + | The operators $op[&], $op[`|] and $op[^] stand for //bitwise AND, bitwise OR// and //bitwise XOR// respectively, and all perform their operation bit by bit of the corresponding numbers. For example, 5 in 32-bit binary is 00000000000000000000000000000101, and 3 is 00000000000000000000000000000011. Therefore, ''5&3'' equals 1, because: |
| * for the first bits, 0 AND 0 is 0; | * for the first bits, 0 AND 0 is 0; | ||
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| * for the thirty-second bits, 1 AND 1 is 1. | * for the thirty-second bits, 1 AND 1 is 1. | ||
| - | So the final result is the binary number ''00000000000000000000000000000001'' which is 1 in decimal. Similarly, ''5|3'' is ''7'' (''00000000000000000000000000000111'' in binary). //XOR// results in 1 when the bits are different, and 0 when they are equal (or put another way, it flips only the bits of the first operand which are 1's in the second operand); therefore ''5^3'' is ''6'' (''00000000000000000000000000000110'' in binary). | + | So the final result is the binary number 00000000000000000000000000000001 which is 1 in decimal. Similarly, ''5|3'' is 7 (00000000000000000000000000000111 in binary). //XOR// results in 1 when the bits are different, and 0 when they are equal (or put another way, it flips only the bits of the first operand which are 1's in the second operand); therefore ''5^3'' is 6 (00000000000000000000000000000110 in binary). |
| + | |||
| + | The //bitwise NOT// operator is a //unary// operator (one that applies to single numbers, like the minus sign in front of a number does). It uses the symbol $op[~] (tilde) and results in each bit of the number being flipped. For example, ''~5'' returns the binary number 11111111111111111111111111111010 which equals the decimal number -6. In arithmetic terms, ''~n'' performs the same operation as ''-1-n'', because ''-1'' is all ones in binary, and subtracting any binary number from it results in the bits of that number being flipped (e.g. in 4-bit arithmetic, 1111-1010 results in 0101). | ||
| - | The //bitwise NOT// operator is an //unary// operator (one that applies to single numbers, like the minus sign in front of a number does). It uses the symbol **~** (tilde) and results in each bit of the number being flipped. For example, ''~5'' returns the binary number ''11111111111111111111111111111010'' which equals the decimal number ''-6''. In arithmetic terms, ''~n'' performs the same operation as ''-1-n'', because ''-1'' is all ones in binary, and subtracting any binary number from it results in the bits of that number being flipped (e.g. in 4-bit arithmetic, ''1111-1010'' results in ''0101''). | + | The operator $op[<<] takes two integers, and displaces the binary representation of the first number to the left by an amount of bits indicated by the second number, filling the digits inserted on the right with zeros, and making the higher-order bits to be lost. This effectively results in multiplying the first number by 2<sup>(second number)</sup>. For example, ''5<<3'' returns ''40'', because ''5<<3'' inserts three zeros on the right and discards the ones on the left, resulting in the binary number 00000000000000000000000000101000 which is 40 in decimal; or in other words, it multiplies 5 by 2³, i.e. returns 5 times 8 which is 40. |
| - | The operator **<<** takes two integers, and displaces the binary representation of the first number to the left by an amount of bits indicated by the second number, filling the digits inserted on the right with zeros, and making the higher-order bits to be lost. This effectively results in multiplying the first number by 2<sup>(second number)</sup>. For example, ''5<<3'' returns ''40'', because ''5<<3'' inserts three zeros on the right and discards the ones on the left, resulting in the binary number ''00000000000000000000000000101000'' which is 40 in decimal; or in other words, it multiplies 5 by 2³, i.e. returns 5 times 8 which is 40. | + | The $op[>>] operator works similarly, but it displaces to the right, and instead of inserting zeros on the left, the leftmost bit (which is the sign bit as LSL uses twos complement arithmetic) is copied instead, as many times as necessary to fill the spaces. For example, the decimal number ''-8'' is represented in 32-bit binary as 11111111111111111111111111111000; therefore ''-8>>1'' results in the binary number 11111111111111111111111111111100 which equals -4. |
| - | The **>>** operator works similarly, but it displaces to the right, and instead of inserting zeros on the left, the leftmost bit (which is the sign bit as LSL uses twos complement arithmetic) is copied instead, as many times as necessary to fill the spaces. For example, the decimal number ''-8'' is represented in 32-bit binary as ''11111111111111111111111111111000''; therefore ''-8>>1'' results in the binary number ''11111111111111111111111111111100'' which equals -4. | + | The bitwise operators (especially the bitwise AND operator, $op[&]) are widely used in LSL, because many functions or events take or return integers whose binary expression represents a series of flags. For example, $lfn[llGetAgentInfo] returns an integer value in which the rightmost bit is 1 if the agent is flying, or 0 if not; the next bit is 1 if the agent has attachments, and 0 if not, and so on, for many bits of information. For that purpose, the constant $lct[AGENT_FLYING] has the value 1 (all zeros and an 1, in binary), so that a bitwise AND of the result with that constant, gives either zero (meaning it's not set) or non-zero (meaning it's set); similarly, the constant $lct[AGENT_ATTACHMENTS] has the value 2 (in binary, all zeros, a 1, and a 0), for which a bitwise AND will separate the corresponding bit of the returned value, and so on. |
| - | The bitwise operators are widely used in LSL, because many functions or events take or return integers whose binary expression represents a series of flags. For example, [[functions/llGetAgentInfo]] returns an integer value in which the rightmost bit is 1 if the agent is flying, or 0 if not; the next bit is 1 if the agent has attachments, and 0 if not, and so on, for many bits of information. For that purpose, the constant [[constants/AGENT_FLYING]] has the value 1 (all zeros and an 1, in binary), so that a bitwise AND of the result with that constant, gives either zero (meaning it's not set) or non-zero (meaning it's set); similarly, the constant [[constants/AGENT_ATTACHMENTS]] has the value 2 (in binary, all zeros, an 1, and a 0), for which a bitwise AND will help to separate bit 1 of the returned value, and so on. | + | As another example, the parameter of the $ev[changed] event is an integer indicating what has changed, and several bits can be set at the same time because several things can change at a time, therefore each of the $lct[changed/|CHANGED_xxx] constants has one bit set according to the meaning of the bit (they are named in such a way that you only need to remember the name of the constant, not the bit position). And there are many more cases where integers are used as bit fields. |
| === See also === | === See also === | ||
| - | * [[types/float#Automatic type conversion between float and integer]] | + | * $lty[float#Automatic type conversion between float and integer|Automatic type conversion between float and integer] |